Summary by Uma Sekaran

CHAPTER I WHAT IS RESEARCH Research is simply the branch of finding solutions to a occupation after a thorough postulate and analysis of the office staffal federal agents. Business investigate dodgeatic and organized effort to investigate a specific fuss encountered in the proceeding drawting, that needs a solution. It comprises a series of stairs envisi integrityd and executed, with the goal of finding break ups to the f tout ensemble outs that be of concern to the manager in the work environment.Business look for organized, systematic, selective discipline- initiationd detailed, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific caper, undertaken with the purpose of finding assists or solutions to it. yea, ga usah bingung sama yang nameverya mahluk bernama PENELITIAN. Intinya penelitian itu kan nyelidikin suatu masa lanthanum buat nemuin solusinya. Prosesnya ga jauh beda sama usaha kita nyari kebenaran suatu gossip atau cari info tentang orang yan g kita gebet. Bedanya RISET BISNIS ini harus dikerjain secara sistematis, developmentnya jelas, dan ada dalil-dalil keilmuan yang sudah diakui dan terbukti keabsahannya.Santai semua orang chivalrici bisa menaklukan binatang yang bernama PENELITIAN ini khususnya SKRIPSI (buat mahasiswa S1). Chayo Pasti bisa casing OF BUSINESS RESEARCH Two disagreeent purposes of search to solve a current worry faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a whilely solution (applied look). to generate a body of companionship by trying to comprehend how received capers that occur in systems advise be figure out ( sanctioned explore). Applied interrogation research d cardinal with the conception of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems presently being experienced in the organization.Basic/ radical/pure research research d wholeness chiefly to enhance the collar of definite problems that comm entirely occur in organizational settings, and seek me thods of firmness them. CHAPTER II THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research 1. goal-directedness started the research with a definite aim or purpose, purposive focus 2. validity cargonfulness, scrupulousness, the degree of exactitude in research investigations. Good speculative base and a sound methodological throw 3.Testability detective develops certain hypotheses, whence these gouge be well-tried by applying certain statistical tests to the entropy collected for the purpose 4. Replicability the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported once to a greater extent and yet again when the equal type of research is repeated in opposite(a) exc looke equal circumtances 5. Precision and assumption Precision the closeness of the findings to reality base on a pattern. Reflects the degree of accuracy or axactitude of the results on the basis of the specimen to what really exist in the universe Confiden ce the prospect that our estimations atomic numerate 18 correct 6.Objectivity the conclusions d bleakn through the interpretation of the results of information analysis based on the facts of the findings derived from actual entropy and non on our own infixed or emotional values 7. Generalizability the scope of applicability of the research findings in peerless(prenominal) organizational setting to other settings. The research adjudicate distribution foundation has to be logically developed and a issuance of other enlarge in the information-collection methods need to be meticulously followed 8. Parsimony simplicity in apologizeing the phenomena or problemsthat occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.Introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the grave performers that influences it good conceptual hypothetic model The reason for following a scientific method is that the results result be less pr unmatchable to errors and more(prenominal) than confidence backside be placed in the findings because of the greater badness in application of the design details. This also increases the replicability and generalizability of the findings. Makanya, ikutin deh aturan scientific method. Ibaratnya, meneliti juga ada rukunnya sama boat sholat. Kalo kita sholat rukunnya berantakan, ga tertib urutan ga teratur, kan sholatnya jadi ga karuan tu.Ga jelas juntrungannya. Bisa-bisa ga ada artinya or ga ada nilainya. Prinsip harus bertindak sesuai rukun juga berlaku dalam melakukan penelitian. BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH Deduction the emergence by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a know fact. Induction a serve where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions. HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE method 7 steps in the hypothetico-deductive method 1. Observation 2. Preliminary ergodicness gathering 3. Theory formulation 4. Hypothesizing 5.Further scientific information col lection 6. selective information analysis 7. Deduction CHAPTER IV RESEARCH PROCESS Research process for basic and applied research 1. Observation wide-cut argona of research interest place 2. Preliminary data gathering interviewing, belles-lettres field of employment 3. Problem definition research problem delineated 4. theory-based poser variants clearly identified and labeled 5. Generation of hypotheses 6. Scientific research design 7. Data collection, analysis, and interpretation 8. Deduction hypotheses substantiated? Research question answered?Kalau pada tahap ini hipotesis dan pertanyaan perma salaahan belum terjawab, maka kita harus kembali ke proses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, atau pun 7. Yang sabar ya supposale( Kalau sudah terjawab, ya lanjut ke tahap selanjutnya 9. Report writing 10. Report presentation 11. Managerial decision do Yeah, tahap pertama pasti observasi dulu. Gue inget banget, waktu pertama-tama dulu gue bilang mau ngangkat Kampung Betawi buat objek penelitian. As win bilang gini deh Kamu observasi dulu tu Kampung Betawi selama seminggu penuh berturut-turut. Kalo perlu, lo ga pulang-pulang, diem aja lo disana.Liatin orang-orang yang dateng, ada apa aja disana, ngapain aja, mereka dateng dari mana, pokoknya perhatiin apa aja yang terjadi di sana . Ga berenti sampe disitu Gue disuruh wawancara si empunya yang berkuasa di Kampung Betawi itu. Tanya tentang Kampung Betawi, secara implisit tanyain juga masalah apa yang dihadapi sama Kampung Betawi, gali sebanyak-banyaknya informasi untuk memahami objek penelitian lo. Dan yang ga kalah penting tanyain mereka punya data-data sesuai kebutuhan lo ga mereka bisa kasih data itu ke lo ga. Ini pentingKalo mereka ga bisa kasih data sesuai kebutuhan lo, batalkan niat lo buat ngangkat tu objek. Gue saranin (sangat) lo ganti objek aja. Daripada tar lo repot belakangan, mending antisipasi dari awal khan Oh, iya ga ketinggalan, gue juga disuruh cari teori dan penelitian terdahulu yang relevan. Untuk memudahkan g ue di masa mendatang. Kalo lo udah observasi dan preliminary data gathering, baru deh lo bisa menemukan masalah utama yang akan lo angkat, secara spesifik, apa permasalahan yang blench menarik, paling kritis, paling menggelitik, paling sensasional, yang paling membuat lo bertanya-tanya geregetan and penasaranSilakan berkhayal Abis itu, dengan teori-teori yang lo temukan, lo bikin model deh Despite the fact that the research model is depicted and discussed in this book as if it were a step-by-step linear process, one has to view as in mind that it is not actually so in practice. For example, though the literature search and interviews ability permit been conducted before formulating the theoretical modeling, one may gestate to go back and conduct more interviews and/or seek additional information from the literature for a cle arr understanding, so as to refine the theory. Gue setuju banget sama pernyataan iniSoalnya gue juga ngerasain harus balik lagi, balik lagi, balik lag i, sampe gue bener-bener ngedapetin apa yang gue mau. Interview, nemu teori, interview, nemu teori, cari ketersediaan data, AARGGHH Mo gila Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin kalo nanti ternyata penemuan kamu ga cocok, ya kita rombak lagi. Sadis Sialan. Tapi kita tetap harus sabar SEMANGAAAAATTT Gue jadi inget pertanyaan Hermas kapan kita tau kalo penelitian kita udah bener-bener BENER . Dan aswin menjawab dengan sok romantis itu semua tergantung kecintaan kalian terhadap ilmu pengetahuan(.Makanya, bikin penelitian tentang sesuatu yang benar-benar lo sukai, lo cintai. Jadi di tengah-tengah kegilaan dan kebingungan, masih ada alasan waras kenapa lo masih mau ngelanjutin tu penelitian karna gue suka banget (selain karna alasan harus ngerjain skripsi supaya bisa lulus dari FE). Percaya deh, mengerjakan sesuatu yang lo suka bakal bikin HIDUP lebih HIDUP. OBSERVATION 1. Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved 2. r distributivelys that a manager belie ves need to be improved in the organization 3.A conceptual or theoretical bother that needs to be tightened up for the basic detective to understand certain phenomena 4. Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically PRELIMINARY DATA accrual 1. Background information of the organization that is, the contextual factors The origin and history of the fellowship when it came into being, business it is in, rate of growth, ownership and control, and so on Size in terms of employees, assets, or both Charter purposes and ideology Location regional, national, or other Resources merciful and others Interdependent consanguinitys with other institutions and the external environment fiscal side of meat during the previous 5 to 10 years, and relevant financial data 2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects Roles and positions in the organization and number of employees at for each(prenominal) one job aim Extent of spec ialization converse channels Control systems Coordination and span of control Reward systems Workflow systems and the handle 3. Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral results of organizational members and client systems (as applicable) Nature of the work Workflow interdependencies Superiors in the organization Participation in decision devising Client systems Co-workers Rewards provided by the organization, such(prenominal) as pay raises and fringe benefits Opport building blockies for advancement in the organization Organizations attitudes toward employees family responsibilities Companys involvement with community, civic, and other favorable groups Companys tolerance of employees taking clip off from the job LITERATURE SURVEY Good literature survey ensure that 1. primal changeables that are likely to influence the problem concomitant are not left out of the study 2.A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be to the highest degree grand to consi der (parsimony), why they would be considered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus, the literature survey inspection and repairs the development of the theoretical textile and hypotheses for testing 3. The problem literary argument gutter be made with precision and clarity 4. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced 5. One does not run the risk of reinventing the flap that is, wasting efforts on trying to rediscover more or lessthing that is already cognise 6.The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and world-shattering PROBLEM DEFINITION Narrow down the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is unfavorable that the focus of skillful research, or in other words, the problem, be unambiguously identified and defined. No amount of good research substructure find solutions to the line, if the critical issue or the problem to be canvass is not clearly pinpointed. A problem does not necessarily recall that nighthing is seriously wrong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A problem could simply read an interest in an issue where finding the up amend answers might help to improve an existing situation. It is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap exists mingled with the actual and the sought after ideal states. Is this factor I have identified an antecendent, the real problem, or the consequence? Problem definition or problem literary argument a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. Could pertain to 1. animated business problems where a manager is looking for a solution (applied research) 2.Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager chances have scope for improvement (applied research) 3. Areas where ro ughly conceptual clarity is need for damp theory building (basic research) 4. Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the motif (basic research) CHAPTER V NEED FOR THEORETICAL poser Theoretical framework a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the births among the several(prenominal) factors that have been identified as important to the problem. This theory flows logically from bread and butter of previous research in the problem area. ? Integrating ones logical beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for look into the research problem. ? Theoretical framework discusses the inter kinds among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. From the theoretical framework, indeed(prenominal), testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory hypothesise is valid or not. ? The entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical framework. VARIABLES Variable anything that can take on differing or varying values. 4 main types of variables 1. Dependent variable (also cognize as the meter variable) 2. main(a) variable (also known as predictor variable) 3. Moderating variable 4. interfere variable Dependent variable Variable of primary interest to the researcher The researchers goal is to understand and specify the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it The main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study Pantesan Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin dengan pertanyaan yang selalu dia tujukan ke gue WHAT DO YOU take.. tujuan lo apa sih Lo mau apa ha . Nah, kalo kayak gini gue jadi bingung lagi nih. Jadi dependent variable gue jumlah pengunjung atraksi wisata budaya PBB atau keinginan mengunjungi atraksi wisata budaya PBB Duh jadi bingung mikir lagi deh.Wahai teman, makanya selalu tanyakan dan pastikan tujuan akhir apa yang lo mau . Itulah dependent variable lo (hmm,,, sepertinya ini ga cuma berlaku buat penelitian deh, tapi dalam kehidupan nyata lo juga what do you want ) Independent variable One that influences the dependent variable in either a coercive or negative appearance When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present With each unit of increase in the independent variable, on that point is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also Variance in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variableModerating variable One that has a strong dependant on(p) issue on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship Whenever the relationship in the midst of the independent variable and dependent variable becomes contingent or dependent on another variable, we say that the third variable has a moderating effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship The variable that moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable step in variable One that surfaces mingled with the time the independent variables start operating(a) to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable The intervening variable surfaces as a guide of the independent variable(s) operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ? It becomes evident at this stage that to arrive at good solutions to the roblem, one should correctly identify the problem first, and whence the variables that contribute to it. ? After identifying the allow for variables, the next step is to elaborate the network of associations among the variables, so that relevant hypotheses can be developed and succeedingly tested. ? Based on the results of hypotheses testing (which would manoeuvre whether or not the hypotheses have been supported), the extent to which the problem can be solved would become evident.Theoretical framework elaborates the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the personality and mission of the relationships. A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation that are relevant to the problem identified. Berarti gue bener donggue ga ngikutin teori dan penelitian lainnya secara plek-plekan sama Gue pake mereka dengan menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi kasus gue, si PBB. 5 basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework 1.The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussions. 2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another. This should be make for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. 3. If the nature and focussing of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of findings of previous research, then thither should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative. 4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would support these relationships to exist.This arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings. 5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationship. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT Hypotheses development formulating such testable statement Hypotheses a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement ? To call a relationship statistically significant, we should be confident that 95 multiplication out of 100 the observed relationshi p will hold dead on target ? Only a 5% pass off that the relationship would not be detectedStatement of hypotheses format If-then statement Directional ? The direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is indicated ? The nature of the difference between two groups on a variable (more than/less than) is postulated Nondirectional ? Do postulate a relationship or difference, but stretch no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences ? It may be conjectured that in that location would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative ?Formulated either because the relationships or differences have never been previously explored & no basis for indicating the direction, or because there have been contrasted findings in previous research studies on the variables slide fastener and alternate hypotheses Null hypothesis a proposition that states a def initive, exact relationship between two variables ? States that the people correlation between two variables is equal to correct or that the difference in the humbles of two groups in the nation is equal to zero (or some definite number) ?Expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups Alternate hypotheses the opposite of the unimportant ? Statement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups If we reject the null hypothesis, then all permissible alternative hypotheses relating to the crabby relationship tested could be supported Example Directional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis H0 M = W H0 M W = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis HA M W HA M W Nondirectional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis H0 AM = AS H0 AM AS = 0 Alternate hypothesis H0 AM ? AS Directional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis H0 there is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and the job satisfaction of employees H0 ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis HA ? 0 Nondirectional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis H0 ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis HA ? ? 0 Steps in hypotheses testing 1. State the null and the alternate hypotheses 2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or nonparametric 3. Determine the level of significance desired (p=0. 5, or more, or less) 4. See if the output results from calculator analysis indicate that the significance level is met. If, as in the subject area of Pearson correlation analysis in Excel software, the significance level is not indicated in the printout, look up the critical values that defined the regions of credenza on the appropriate table (t, F, X2) see tables at the end of the book. This critical value demarcates the region of rejection from that of acceptance of the null hypotheses. 5. When the resultant value is bi gger than critical value, the null hypotheses is rejected, and the alternate true.If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the null is accepted and the alternate rejected. Hypotheses generation and testing can be done both through deduction and induction Deduction the theoretical model is first developed, testable hypotheses are then formulated, data collected, and then the hypotheses are tested. Induction spick-and-span hypotheses are formulated based on what is known from the data already collected, which are then tested. CHAPTER VI RESEARCH initiation Purpose of the study Types of investigation Extent of researcher interference airfield setting Unit of analysis ( community to be studied) Time horizon mapping OF THE STUDY Exploratory study When not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past To better comprehend the nature of the problem since very fe w studies might have been conducted in that area When some facts are known, but more information is needed for developing a viable theoretical framework For obtaining a good graps of the phenomena of interest and advancing knowledge through consequent theory building and hypotheses testingDescriptive study To ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation The goal to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organization, industry-oriented, or other perspective Present data in meaningful form, help to ? Understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation ? Think systematically about aspects in a given situation ? Offer ideas for nevertheless probe and research ? Help make certain simple decisions Hypotheses testing Explain the nature of certain relationships, or be the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a s ituation To explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcome Case study analysis get in-depth, contextual analyses of numbers relating to similar situations in other organizations Problem-solving technique Qualitative in nature, useful in applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-solving experiences effective in understanding certain phenomena, and generating further theories for empirical testingTYPE OF INVESTIGATION causal study the study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems Correlational study when the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with the problem STUDY SETTING Field studies correlational studies done in organizations Field experiments studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the alike internal environment in which employees normally fuctionLab experiments experiments done to establish cause and effect rela tionship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the cornerstone of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are rigorously controlled. Similar subjects are optn carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli UNIT OF outline Unit of analysis level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. Depend on problem statement focuses. psyche data gathered from each individual and treating each employees response as an individual data sourceDyads interested in studying two-persons interactions, then several two-persons groups Groups even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among some groups (missal jadi 6 group) Our research question determines the unit of analysis. TIME HORIZON Cross-sectional/one-shot studies data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or moths, in o rder to answer a research questionLongitudinal studies data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question CHAPTER eight-spot OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Operationalizing the concepts reduction of abstract concept to render them mensurable in a tangible port Operationalizing defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept Operationalizing the concept ? They would probably have some regular broad characteristics, which we call dimensions. ? Examining each of the dimension and breaking each further into its sections ?These should somehow be observable and quantitatively measurable What an operational definition is not Does not describe the correlates of the concept Does not consist of delineating the reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept If we either operationalize the concepts incorrectly or confuse them with other concepts, then we will not have valid evaluates. This means that we will not have good data, and our research will not be scientific. Yeahkalo kita salah mengoperasionalisasikan suatu variabel, fatal akibatnya.Bisa-bisa kita salah bikin pertanyaan buat diukur nilainya. Jelek deh datanya. (kayaknya gue baru sadar deh kalo gue salah operasionalisasi. Hix. ) Tips agar tidak salah operasionalisasi variabel ? Bikin landasan teori yang bagus semua berawal dari landasan teori ? Selalu temukan definisi yang tepat dari sebuah konsep ataupun variabel. DEFINISI itu kunci yang penting Kalo kata Lovelock -si prof pemasaran jasa yang kita selalu punya kunci cinta- If you cant define something, you cant measure it, and what you cant measure you cant manage. Punya definisi yang tepat, pasti akan menuntun lo kepada operasionalisasi variabel yang tepat. Ini teori gue, hehe ((((( (berdasarkan pengalaman pribadi). Pantesan, aswin selalu bertanya pada gue ini definisinya apa? Itu definisinya apa? . H mmmm. pantesaku baru mengerti sekarang. SCALES Scale a scape or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study 4 basic types of surpasss nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio Nominal get over One that allows researcher to sequester subjects to certain categories or groups ?Assigned code number ? These number serve as simple and convenient category labels with no intrinsic value, other than to assign respondents to one of two nonoverlapping or inversely exclusive categories ? Note that the categories are also collectively exhaustive ? The information is to calculate the percentage (or frequency) ordinal number scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also caste-orders the categories in some meaningful way ?Helps the researcher to determine the percentage of respondents who consider interaction with others as most important, those who consider using a number of different skills as most important, and so on Interval scale let us measure the distance between any two points on the scale ? Helps us to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables ? Not only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among individuals ? The origin, or the starting point, could be any arbitrary number ? more(prenominal) powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal scale, and has for its measure of central dip the arithmetic mean ? It measures of dispersion are the range, the standard deviation, and the variance ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences ? It has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point ? The most powerful of the 4 sc ales because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three scalesUse of 4 types of scales Nominal scale for obtaining personal data such as gender or department Ordinal scale to roam the preferences or usage of various brands of a product by individuals and to rank order individuals, objects, or events Interval scale when responses to various percentage points that measure a variable can be tapped on a five-point (or seven-point or any other number of points) scale, which can thereafter be summated across the items balance scale when exact numbers on objective (as opposed to subjective) factor are called for CHAPTER IXGOODNESS OF MEASURES Goodness of measures jolly sure that the pricks we use in our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately Item analysis to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. ? The means between the high-score group and th e low-score group are tested to detect significant difference through the t-values ? The items with a high t-value (test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the instrument) are then include in the instrumentRELIABILITY reliability tests how consistently a bill rod instrument measures whatsoever concept it is measuring Measure stability and consistency Reliability stableness of measures the ability of a measure to remain the same over time despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselves ? Test-retest dependability the reliableness coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a randomness occasion, the higher the better ?Parallel-form reliability when responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated Internal consistency of measures the items should hang together as a set and be capable of independently measuring the same concept so that the respondent s attach the same general meaning to each of the items ? Interitem consistency reliability test of the consistency of respondents answer to all the items in a measure. To the degree that the items are independent measures of the same concept, they will be correlated with one another.Cronbachs coefficient alpha utilise for multipoint-scaled items, Kuder-Richardson formulas use for dichotomous items. The higher the coefficients, the better the measuring instrument ? Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument VALIDITY Validity tests how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it is intended to measure Whether we measure the right concept Validity Content validity ensures that the measure includes an adequate and exemplification set of items that tap the concept.A function of how well the dimensions and fixingss of a concept have been delineated Criterion-related validity established when the measure different iates individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict Construct validity testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed ? Correlational analysis as in the case of establishing concurrent and predictive validity or focused and discriminant validity ?Factor analysis a multivariate technique that would swear the dimensions of the concept that have been operationally defined, as well as indicate which of the items are most appropriate for each dimension ? Multitrait multimethod matrix of correlations derived from measuring concepts by different forms and different methods CHAPTER XI POPULATION, ELEMENT, POPULATION FRAME, SAMPLE, & SUBJECT universe the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigateElement a hotshot member of the macrocosm Population frame a listing of all the elements in the commonwealth from which the sample is drawn Sample a subset of t he race, it comprises some members selected from it Subject a single member of the sample SAMPLING have the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that the study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements ?All conclusions drawn about the sample under study are generalized to the population ? Xbar, S, S2 are used as come closes of the population parameters ? , ? , ? 2 Reason for ingest Self-evident Time, cost, and other human resources considered Some generation likely to produce more reliable results Representativeness of samples Rarely will the sample be the exact replica of the population from which it is drawn If we choose the sample in a scientific way, we can be reasonably sure that the sample statistic (e. . ,Xbar, S, S2) is fairly close to the population parameter (i. e. ,? , ? , ? 2) newton OF DISTRIBUTIONS ? Attributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed ? If we take a sufficiently large number of samples and choose them with care, we will have a ingest distribution of the means that has normality ? This is the reason that the two important issues in taste are the sample surface (n) and the take design ?If our consume design and sample size are right, the sample mean Xbar will be within close range of the unbowed population mean (? ) ? The more representative of the population the sample is, the more generalizable are the findings of the research 2 major types of sampling design 1. prospect sampling Simple random sampling Complex probability sampling ? positive sampling ? separate random sampling ? Proportionate and disproportionate secernate random sampling ? Cluster sampling ? Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling Area sampling ? Double sampling 2. Nonprobability sampling Convenience sampling Purposive sampling ? Judgment sampling ? Quota sampling PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability sampling when elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample Simple random sampling every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject ? exceed when the generalizability of the findings to the whole population is the main objective of the study Complex probability sampling Systematic sampling drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n ? high hat when the population frame is large, and a listing of the elements is handily available at one place Stratified random sampling a process stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each class. The population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful in the context of the study ? beaver when differentiated information is needed regarding various s trata within the population, which are known to differ in their parameters Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling Proportionate the subjects drawn from each stratum, members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total number of elements in the respective strata Disproportionate the subjects drawn from each stratum, the number of subjects from each stratum will now be altered, while keeping the sample size unchanged Cluster sampling when several groups with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity are found, then a random sampling of the clusters or groups can ideally be done and information gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen clusters ? Best when heterogeneous group is to be studied at one time Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling the division of of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all th e elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters Area sampling constitutes geographical clusters, when the research pertains to populations within identifiable geographical areas such as coutries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality ? Best when the goal of the research is confined to a particular locality or area Double sampling where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail ? Best provided added information at stripped additional expenditureNONPROBABILITY SAMPLING Nonprobability sampling the elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects Convenience sampling collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it ? Best to obtain some quick information to get a feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest Purposi ve sampling confined a specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher Judgment sampling the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information required ? Best where the collection of specialized advised inputs on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of any other sampling design would not offer opportunities to obtain the specialized information Quota sampling a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a shape proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis ?Best for the inclusion of all groups in the system researched ISSUES IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE 1. Precision ? How close our estimate is to the true population characteristic ? The narrower this interval, the greater the precision ? A function of the range of variability in the sampling distribution of the sample mean ? If we want to reduce the standard error given a particular standard deviation in the sample, we need to increase the sample size 2. Confidence ? How certain we are that our estimates will really hold true for the population ?Reflects the level of certainty with which we can state that our estimates of the population parameters will hold true ? A 95% confidence is the conventionally accepted level for most business research, most commonly expressed by denoting the significance level as p? 0. 05 ? At least 95 times out of 100, our estimate will reflect the true population characteristic The sample size, n, is a function of 1. The variability in the population 2. Precision or accuracy needed 3. Confidence level desired 4. Type of sampling plan used 4 aspects while qualification decisions on the sample size . How much precision is really needed in estimating the population characteristics of interest what is the margin of allowable errors? 2. How much confidence i s really needed how much chance can we take of making errors in estimating the population parameters? 3. To what extent is there variability in the population on the characteristics investigated? 4. What is the cost-benefit analysis of increasing the sample size? Roscoe (1975) rules of thumb for find out sample size 1. Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than ergocalciferol are appropriate for most research 2.Where samples are to be upset(a) into subsamples (exmale/female, etc), a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is necessary 3. In multivariate research (including multiple simple regression analysis), the sample size should be several times (preferably 10 times or more) as large as the number of variables in the study 4. For simple experimental research with tight experimental controls (matched pairs, etc), successful research is possible with samples as small as 10 to 20 in size Kalo menurut gue sih, tahapan yang paling genting dan paling kritis ya di pembuatan BAB 3 alias pembuatan/penentuan metodologi ini.Ibaratnya bikin racikan obat, BAB 3 ini kayak tahap ketika lo lagi menentukan takaran dosis setiap elemen ramuan (ya populasi, ya sample, ya lainnya). Kalo dosisnya kurang, pasien ga sembuh, merana harus menderita terus-menerus. Kalo dosisnya berlebihan, pasien over dosis, meledak nanti Dua-duanya sama-sama gawat. Kalo lo udah bikin BAB 3 lo dengan benar, selanjutnya gampang kok, tinggal ngambil data or sebar kuesioner, analisa. Tingal jalan. ga perlu berlari-lari jatuh bangun kedebak-kedebuk. Well, udah bisa berpikir lebih santai lah.. Tapi ingetBAB 3 juga berasal dari BAB 2 Model penelitian lo kan berasal dari landasan teori di BAB 2. Salah teori, bisa-bisa salah model. Salah model, berakibat salah operasionalisasi variabel. Salah operasionalisasi variabel, salah kuesioner. Salah kuesioner, salah data. Salah data, tebak sendiri. Tapi, BAB 2 juga berasal dari BAB 1 lho. Lo kan harus tau permasalahan lo dengan jelas tuh. Apa yang jadi latar belakang permasalahannya, apa hasil akhir yang lo mau. Semua itu yang menentukan teori-teori apa aja yang lo butuhin untuk dicantumin Hahahaha.Intinya sih, semua harus dikerjakan secara berurutan yah BAB 1-2-3. Inget prinsip rukun yang gue jabarin di atas. Pokoknya selamat mengerjakan BAB1,2,3 bolak-balik deh. 1,2,3 3,2,1 2,1,3 begitu aja terus Yang penting sabar semua harus dikerjakan dengan ketenangan akal dan pikiran. Nikmatin aja prosesnya((( goodluck yo CHAPTER XII 4 steps in data analyis 1. Getting data ready for analyis 2. Getting a feel for the data 3. test the worthiness of data 4. Testing the hypotheses GETTING DATA READY FOR ANALYSIS edit data ? Data have to be edited Information that may have been noted down by the interviewer, observer, or researcher in a hurry must be clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically in its entirety ? Incoming mail questionnaire data have to be checked for incompleteness and inconsistencies Handling vacant responses ? Not all respondents answer every item in the questionnaire ? hollow because the respondent did not understand the question, did not know the answer, was not instinctive to answer, or was simply indifferent to the need to respond to the entire questionnaire ? bearing to handle a blank response Assign the midpoint in the scale as the response to that particular item Allow the computer to ignore the blank responses when the analysis are done Assign to the item the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular item disclose the item the mean of the responses of this particular respondent to all other questions measuring this variable Give the missing response a random number within the range for that scale Coding ? Code the responses Coding poll first to transcribe the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data Categorization ? Set up scheme for categorizing the variables such that the several items measuring a concept are all grouped together ? Responses to some of the negatively worded questions have also to be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction Entering data ? Questionnaire data are collected on scanner answer sheets or tha raw data manually keyed into the computer DATA ANALYSIS 3 objectives in data analysis 1.Getting a feel for the data 2. Testing the goodness of data 3. Testing the hypotheses developed for the research Feel for the data Examination of the measure of central tendency, and how clustered or dispersed the variables are, gives a good idea of how well the questions were framed for tapping the concept The statistics give feel for the data ? The frequency distributions for the demographic variables ? The mean, standard deviation, range, and variance on the other dependent and independent variables ?An intercorrelation matrix of the variables, irrespective of whether or not the hypotheses are directly related to these analysis Testing goodness of data Reliability ? Testing cons istency and stability ? Consistency indicates how well the items measuring a concept hang together as a set ? Cronbachs alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are positively correlated to one another ? The closer Cronbachs alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability Validity factorial validity can be established by submitting the data for factor analysis ? The results of factor analysis (a multivariate technique) will confirm whether or not the theorized dimensions emerge Hypotheses testing Test the hypotheses already developed for the study Analisis. Selamat merangkai kata. Selamat merangkai logika Ayo fitut. Yang rajin dong ah Jangan menunda-nunda PEKERJAAN TEKNIS SPECIMENT FORMAT FOR REFERENCING APA FORMAT Book by single author Leshin, C. B. (1997). wariness on the World Wide Web.Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall. Book by more than one author Cornett, M. , Wiley, B. J. , & Sankar, S. (1998) The pleasures of nurturing. London McMunster Publishing. Book review Nichols, P. (1998). A new look at Home operate Review of the book Providing Home Services to the Elderly by Girch, S. Family Review Bulletin, 45, 12-13. Journal Article Jeanquart, S. , & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.